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Both people giving and getting test don't know what procedure they are getting.
Terms in this set [93]
Double Blind
Both people giving and getting test don't know what procedure they are getting.
Internal Validity
accuracy in concluding that the outcome of an experiment is due to the independent variable
Confounding Variable
When variables compete to explain the affects found in a study
7 Elements of Experimental Design
Independent Variable
Dependent
Variable
Pre-test
Post-test
Experimental Group
Control Group
Random Assignment
Qualitative Research
explores processes that underlie human behavior
Inductive
Specific data -> general theory
deductive
General theory -> specific data
Qualitative Research Characteristics
1. Depth Rather than breadth
2. Learn about "how and why" people behave etc.
3. Often Exploratory
4. Often inductive
5. Continual shaping and reshaping of the
data
6. Data is in the form of words, images
7. May be a follow-up of previous research
where a quantitative researcher has reached
an impasse in explaining or
understanding.
Credibility
demonstrates that the inquiry was conducted in such a manner to ensure that the participants were accurately identified and described.
Confirmability [objectivity]
can the findings of the study be confirmed by someone else?
Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data
1. Persistent Observation
2. Prolonged Engagement - data gathering
3. Thick, Rich, In-depth Description
4. Triangulation of methods, sources, investigators
5. Negative Case Analysis
6. Audit Trail
7. Conceptual Saturation
8. Member Checks
9. Peer Debriefing
10. Explicit Documentation of data collection methods, analysis, and field decisions that altered any strategies or focus
Audit Trail
theoretical memos including detailed descriptions of how you got from the data to the conclusions.
Conceptual Saturation
collect data until no new categories are generated.
Negative Case Analysis
search for and explain phenomena that do not fit. Revise hypotheses until they account for all known cases.
Persistant Observation
recurring observation of participants
Member Checks
present analysis of the data to informants for their confirmation or revision
Peer Debriefing
present analyses and conceptual abstractions of the data to other qualitative researchers [to explore inquirer bias and clarify meanings and the basis of interpretation]
Content Analysis
Used to identify content [messages, themes] in various types of materials.
Identify the research question.
Identify the unit of analysis.
Data analysis includes:
- Open coding
- Axial coding
- Selective coding
Open Coding
The initial "pass" through the data.
Locate initial themes and name [code] them.
Creates many new themes.
Axial Coding
Refining your categories
Selective Coding
Representing the whole - look
selectively for cases that illustrate each theme. Identify best quotations. Identify how themes best fit together. [ex. Pick a favorite from your ten groups. he has a great quote that I am going to use ]
*It's always non-probability because you have a broad question.
The research question is:
"What important themes do young adults identify from the April 2011 General Conference addresses?
Open coding -
identify the major themes for each participant. Some participants may have more than one theme coded [double coding].
Talk with several others in the class to identify if you have the same themes [triangulation of investigators]
List the major themes you have come up with
Axial coding - look at your major themes - are there any themes that could be collapsed into a broader category? Any sub-categories?
Selective coding - what quote best represents each of your themes?
Purposes of Critical Research: To change the world through...
a] Empowerment - especially for less powerful groups [ie. women, racial minorities, people with disabilities, etc].
b] Enlightenment - uncovering myths; exposing false ideologies.
c] Emancipation - freeing people from false ideologies. Helping people change the world for themselves
One-shot case study
X- Treatment
O - Assessment
One group pretest-posttest
O - Assessment
X - Treatment
O - Assessment
Non-Equivilant Control Group
There are 2 groups. One group receives a treatment, and the other does not, but both are tested them same way. X O, and O
Classical Experimental Design
R - Random Assignment
O - Assessment
X - Treatment
O - Assessment
Post-Test Only Control Group
R - Random Assignment
X - Treatment
O - Assessment
Persistent Observation
going back and re-interviewing recurring observation in participants.
Prolonged engagement
gathering data over time
Thick-Rich in depth description
talk about the details
Explicit Documentation
of data collection methods & analysis at each stage
Triangulation of Sources
3 different types of sources
Triangulation of Method
asking questions
Interviewing Types
1] Informal conversational interviews
2] Guided approach
*Best for children, with their cognitive limitations, linguistic limitations, and attention span
3] Standardized open-ended
interview
secondary sources
most books, Time magazine [second summary]
primary
Peer reviewed ACTUAL journal articles detailing research findings
Non-Directional
There isn't a relationship between infidelity and marital happiness
Directional
If there is more infidelity, there will be less happiness. There is a relationship between infidelity and marital happiness.
Directional Hypothesis
reflects a difference between groups and the direction of the difference is specified [if-then]
Social Citation Index
seeing how many times an article is cited
PyschInfo [EBSCO]
seeing specifics of articles, secondary source.
Elements of a Research Paper
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Abstract
Summary
Introduction
Hypothesis
Review of literature
Conceptual definitions [i.e. this is what happiness means]
Contribution
Methods
Design
Sample
Measures & Operational definitions
Procedures
Results
data
Discussion
Interpretation of results, Implications & Limitations
Reliability
how stable or consistent the measure is
Validity
it is measuring what you say it is
Inter-rater [reliability]
Consistency of results when the same test is given by different researchers. uses Cohen's Cappa
Correlation coefficient [reliability]
index of strength between 2 variables. Difference between test A and B.
Inter-item consistency [reliability]
Asks the same question 500 times. Kronbachs Alpha. How unified the items are in a test.
Test-re-test [reliability]
How stable a test is over time.
Face Validity
face to face, on the same level as fellow researchers
Content Validity
Breadth of items in the measure
Criterion Validity
how does the measure relate to already known standards
Concurrent Validity
how well a test measures present performance
Predictive Validity
how well it predicts future performance [correlation coefficient]
Construct Validity
operational definition accurately assesses theoretical concepts or results of the test are related to an underlying psychological construct.
Discriminative Validity
are you different enough - *correlation about .2 or less
Convergent Validity
Similar enough - *correlation about .8 or more
General source
News or news paper, or a novel
Non -Probability Sampling
Purposive
Snowball
Quota
Convenience
Purposive
choose participants based upon aims and purposes of the study
Snowball
participants nominate participants
Quota
get a certain number *used for representing the important subgroups in a population.
Convenience
All are convenience, but specifically a "convenience sample" makes no attempt to randomize population. You can tell it apart from the other non-probability samples because it lacks the criteria, snowballing, and subgroups of the other types.
Probability Sampling
SRS [Simple Random Sample]
Cluster
Multi-stage Cluster
Systematic
Stratified
SRS [Simple Random Sample]
generalizable, but takes time & a large sample
Cluster
list of clusters, random sample [ex: classroom] Sampling a cluster means they are all together in some form, like a club or quorum.
Multi-Stage Cluster
several levels of clusters, then sub-sampled
Systematic
every Kth element of list is selected
Stratified
population divided into strata and random selection made [ex: male & female strata, or gender strata]
Different types of measurements - NORI
Nominal [categorical]
Ordinal [scale from 1-10]
Ratio *0/zero matters [ex:How many times did you brush your teeth today?...0 is a possible answer and an issue]
Interval [ex: waist size or temperature] *No meaning to zero/zero is arbitrary
Researcher
is an important part of the qualitative process - he/she is the primary source.
Ethics
1. Tuskegee Syphilis Study [1930-1972]
2. Belmont report [1974]
Tuskegee Syphilis Study [1930-1972]
Effects on black people vs. white people...When the real antidote for syphilis came out in 1950's, it was denied being given to the blacks...People went blind and many died.
Belmont Report [1974]
Beneficence - No harm!
Justice - make sure no group is "picked on" or benefited in particular
Respect for person
*[IRB came later]
Threats to internal validity
the accuracy in concluding that the outcome of an experiment is due to the independent variable.
External Validity
the extent to which results of an experiment can be Generalized.
Experimental designs - Pros
+ Explores the CAUSAL relationship between variables
+ Random assignment for independent variable
+ Variables not being examined may be held constant
[using control group]
Experimental designs - Cons
- Experimenter may give subtle cues to participants on how to respond...Expectancy is an issue, but solvable with precautions of standardized procedure & double blind procedure.
limitations of Correlational data.
No proof of causation, only correlation [makes sense with the name].
central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Mean
"average" score...Interval & ratio data. Best for continuous data. If skewed, mode or median will be more accurate.
Median
arranged scores lowest to highest & the median is in the middle. Best for rank order/ordinal data or unevenly distributed continuous data [possibly ratio or interval]
Mode
the score that appears most often. Best for categorical data. *Can be 2 or more.
Post Hoc
Doing research on something that couldn't be ethically tested.
Qualitative Research
research that examines phenomena within the cultural and social context in which it takes place
IRB Process
At least 5 members
A person employed
by the institution
A person NOT employed
by the institution
A scientist
A non scientist
One other
Quantitative Research
The use of sampling techniques [such as consumer surveys] whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to mathematical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities.
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Verified answer
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Although most members of the faculty were strongly against the proposed new schedule, they did not voice their objections because two well-liked senior faculty members were in favor of the new schedule. This small group of dissenters were demonstrating a. minority influence. b. ingroup bias. c. group polarization. d. group think. e. a norm.
Verified answer
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Ernest, a psychology major, is discussing hypnosis with his roommate, Phil. Phil says: “I can’t believe so many people fall for that hypnosis stuff. Hypnosis is just like dreaming. It’s just a different state of consciousness, and a dream can affect someone just like a supposed hypnotic state can.” Explain how Ernest might use the following terms as he discusses the validity of Phil’s claims. Posthypnotic suggestion. Divided-consciousness theory. Social influence theory. Dissociation.
Verified answer
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